外儒内法-甘霖意思

a英语国家概况精讲：第一章 英国的国土与人民
Chapter 1： Land and People 英国的国土与人民
I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts 英国的不同名称及其各组成部分

phical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England.
地理名称：不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。
al name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
官方正式名称：大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。
British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.
不列颠群岛由两个大岛—大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛，及成千上万个小岛组成。
political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.
大不列颠岛上有三个政治区：英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。
(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section.
英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地区。
(2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh
苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。它有三大自然区：北部高地，中部低地及南部山陵。首府：爱丁堡。
(3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff
威尔士位于大不列颠的西部。首府：加的夫
(4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast.
北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域。首府：贝尔法斯特。
Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991.
英联邦是曾为英国殖民地的、但现已独立国家所构成的自由联合体。它成立于1931年，至1990年止已有50个成员国。
II. Geographical Features 英国的地理特征
phical position of Britain:
英国的地理位置：
Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east.
英国是一个岛国。它位于大西洋北部，与欧洲大陆的北海岸隔海相望。南面的英吉利海峡和东面的北海将它与欧洲其它部分隔开。
north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; and the east and southeast are mostly lowlands.
英国的西部和北部主要是高地，东部和东南部主要是低地。
III. Rivers and Lakes 河流与湖泊
Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Britain (1,343m).
本尼维斯山为英国最高峰，海拔1,343米。
Severn River is the longest river in Britain (338km).
塞文河是英国最长的河流。全长338公里。
Thames River is the second longest and most important river in Britain. (336km).

士和爱尔兰人属于凯尔特人。
difference in character个性差别：
The Welsh are emotional and cheerful people. They are music lovers and are proud of their past.
威尔士人感情丰富，情绪高涨，热爱音乐，为过去感到自豪。
The Scots are said to be a serious, cautious and thrifty people, and they are also hospitable, generous and friendly.
苏格兰人通常被认为严肃、谨慎而且节俭，但是他们同样也热情、大方且友好。
The Irish are charm and vivacity. 爱尔兰人充满魅力，生性活泼。
difference in speech between southern England and northern England:
英格兰南方人和北方人语言上的差别：
Southerners speak the type of English close to BBC English; In northern England, regional speech is usually "broader" than that of southern England.
南方人讲的英语接近BBC，北英格兰人的发音通常要比南英格兰人宽。
Welsh keep their language and culture in this way: 威尔士人以这样的方式使他们的语言及文化保持活力。
Throughout the year they have festivals of song and dance and poetry called Eisteddfodau. The great event of the year is the National Eisteddfod. On these occasions competitions are held in Welsh poetry, music, singing and art.
一年中他们有称之为“艺术年会”的唱歌、跳舞、诗歌节。一年中最重要的节日是全国诗歌音乐比赛会。在那里会举行威尔士诗歌、音乐、唱歌和艺术比赛。
main problem in Northern Ireland: 北爱尔兰存在的主要问题：
The fight between the Protestants who are the dominant group, and the Roman Catholics, who are seeking more social, political and economic opportunities.
作为统治者的新教徒和要求更多社会、政治及经济权利的罗马天主教徒之间的斗争。
ants: 移民：
About three million have come to Britain to live and find work since World War II.
自从二战以来约有三百万人来英国生活、工作。
英语国家概况精讲：第二章 英国的起源
Chapter 2：The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066) 英国的起源（公元前5000年—1066年）
Settlers （5000BC-55BC）早期的居民（公元前5000年—公元前55年）

1．The first known settlers of Britain were the Iberians.
人们所知的英国最早居民是伊比利来人。
2． At about 2000 BC the Beaker Folk arrived from the areas now know as Holland and Rhineland.
约公元前2000年，从现在的荷兰和莱茵兰地区来了宽口陶器人。
3． The Celts began to arrive Britain about 700 BC.
约公元前700年，克尔特人来到不列颠岛。
4． The Celts came to Britain in three main waves.
克尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮。
The first wave were the Gaels-came about 600 BC.
第一次高潮是约公元前600年盖尔人的来临。
The second wave were the Brythons-came about 400 BC.
第二次高潮是约公元前400年布立吞（不
列颠）人的抵达。
The third wave were the Belgae-came about 150 BC.
第三次是约公元前150年比利其人的到达。
II. Roman Britain (55BC-410AD) 罗马人统治时期的英国（公元前55年—410年）
h recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. In 55BC and 54BC, Julius Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britain twice. In AD 43, the Emperor Claudius invaded Britain successfully. For nearly 400 years, Britain was under the Roman occupation, though it was never a total occupation.
有记录的英国历史开始于罗马人的入侵。公元前55年和54年，罗马将军朱略斯?凯撒两次入侵英国，均未成功。直到公元43年，克劳锹才成功占领不列颠。将近四百年里，英国人处于罗马人的占领下，但这并非是完全的占领。
2. Roman’s influence on Britain.
The Roman built many towns, road, baths, temples and buildings. They make good use of Britain’s natural resources. They also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain.
罗马人修建了许多城镇网，道路，澡堂，庙宇和其他建筑物。他们还很好地利用了英国的自然资源。罗马人还把基督教这门新宗教带到不列颠。
s for limited Roman influence on Britain.
罗马对不列颠的影响有限的原因。
First, the Romans always treated the Britons as a subject people of slave class. Second, never during the 4 centuries did the Romans and Britons intermarry. Third, the Romans had no impact on the language or culture of ordinary Britons.
首先，罗马人把不列颠人当作奴隶阶段的属民来对待。其次，在四世纪对罗马人和不列颠人通婚。最后，罗马人也未影响普通不列颠人的语言和文化。
前些天，网友Samy给了我一个很好的建议。就是在每个部分的讲解前，先简要介绍一下本次讲解的内容。我也觉得有了这样的简要介绍，就可以使你们一目了然，然后再看后面的具体内容，就比较容易理解。但是由于这个简要是我自己归纳而成，有些地方可能还存在一些缺陷，还望广大朋友能够谅解。
Summary: This is the second part of Chapter 2 (The Origins of a Nation). It introduced some important events and important people in England from 446 to 1066. These most important events are The Anglos-Saxons’ invasion; The Viking and Danish Invasions and The Norman Conquest.
(简要：这是第二章“国家的起源”的第二部分。在这一部分里，主要是介绍了英国从公元446年到1066年所发生的重要事件及人物。这些重要事件分别是盎格鲁—撒克逊人的入侵，北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵及诺曼征服)。
III. The Anglo-Saxons (446-871)
盎格鲁—撒克逊人（公元446—871年）
1． Basis of Modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons.
盎格鲁—萨克逊时代（奠定了英国的基础）
In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles came to
Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes.
The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain first. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449. Then the Saxons, users of the short-sword from northern Germany, established their kingdom in Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the end of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of Heptarchy.
五世纪中叶，朱特人、撒克逊人和盎格鲁人不断入侵不列颠。这是三支日耳曼（条顿）部落。
居住在朱特兰岛（现丹麦南部）上从事打渔农耕的朱特人先抵不列颠。后来从德国北部来的使用短剑的撒克逊人在埃撒克斯、苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国，统治期从五世纪末至六世纪初。六世纪后半叶，同样来自德国北部的盎格鲁人，在东盎格利亚、麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居，同时也他们也把名字给了英国人。这七个主要王国（肯特、埃塞克斯、苏塞克斯、威塞克斯、东盎格利亚、麦西亚和诺森伯利亚），合称为七王国。
2．The early Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity.
最早的盎格鲁—撒克逊人改信基督教。
The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. Christianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew’s Monastery in Rome, to England to convert the heathen English to Christianity. In 579 St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but the conversion of the common people was largely due to the missionary activities of the monks in the north.
盎格鲁—撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国。除了康瓦尔、威尔士、苏格兰和爱尔兰中的克尔特人还信奉基督教外，基督教很快就消失了。公元597，教皇格里高一世把罗马圣安德鲁修道院的副院长圣奥古斯丁派遣到英格兰，其使命是使异教徒的英国人皈依基督教。公元579年圣奥古丁成为坎特伯雷大主教。在使国王和贵族皈依基督教方面，奥古斯丁特别成功。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上归功于北部修士们的传教活动。
3．The Early Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the English state.
早期盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国做出的贡献。
The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. Firstly, they divided the country into shires, with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law. Secondly, they devised the narrow-strip, three-f
ield farming system which continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also established the manorial system. Finally, they created the Witan（council or meeting of the wisemen） to advise the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.
盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国国家的形成打下了基础。首先，他们把国家划分为郡，郡法庭和郡法官、或行政司法长官负责执法。其次，他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪。此外，他们还建立了领地制。最后，他们还创立了议会(贤人会议)，向国王提供建议，这就成为了今天仍存在的枢密院的基础。
IV．Viking and Danish invasions
北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵

1．The invaders were the Norwegians and the Danes. They attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century. They became a serious problem in the 9th century, especially between 835 and 878. They even managed to capture York, an important center of Christianity in 867. By the middle of 9th century, the Viking and the Danes were posing a threat to the Saxon kingdom of Wessex.
入侵者是挪威人和丹麦人，从8世纪末开始，他们不断袭击英格兰的各个地方。9世纪，尤其是公元835-878年间已成为严重问题。他们甚至占领了约克郡，公元867年时的基督教中心。到9世纪中叶，北欧海盗和丹麦人威胁到撒克逊人的威撒克斯王国的安全。
2．King Alfred (849-899) and his contributions
艾尔弗雷德国王（849-899）和他所做出的贡献
Alfred was a king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians.
He founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of the British navy”. He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He translated a Latin book into English. He also established schools and formulated a legal system. All this earns him the title “Alfred the Great.”
阿尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王。他打败了丹麦人，并于公元879年与他们达成了友好协议。协议规定丹麦人控制英格兰北部和西部（丹麦法区），而他统治其他地区。他还劝服一些丹麦首领成为基督教徒。
他因为建立了强大舰队，而以“英国海军之父”闻名于世。他改组了“弗立德”（撒克逊军队），使之更为高效。他将一本拉丁语的书翻译成英语。同时他还建立了学校，并且阐明了法律制度。所有这一切使他当之无愧于“阿尔弗雷德大王。”的称号。
V．The Norman Conquest (1066)
诺曼征服（公元1066年）
1．Reasons for William’s invasion of England after Edward’s death.
威廉在爱德华死后入侵英国的原因。
It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne to William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So Willi
起义及其意义
Armed villagers and townsmen of Kent and Essex, led by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, moved on London in June, 1381. The king was forced to accept their demands. Most of the rebels dispersed and went home, while Tyler and other leaders stayed on for more rights. Tyler was killed at a meeting with the king.
The uprising was brutally suppressed, but it had far-reaching significance in English history. First, it directed against the rich clergy, lawyers and the landowners. Second, it dealt a telling blow to villeinage, and third, a new class of yeomen farmers emerged, paving the way to the development of capitalism.
1381年6月，在瓦特 泰勒和杰克 斯特劳领导下，凯特郡和埃塞克斯郡的农民和市民武装起来发动起义，并向伦敦进发。国王被迫接受了他们的要求。大多数起义农民解散回家，但泰勒和其他坚决的农民留下来要求得到更多的法律、宗教和政治权利。泰勒在又一次与国王的会见中被杀死。
尽管起义被血腥镇压，但在英国历史上留下了深远的影响。这次起义具有真实的社会性，把矛头直接对准了富有的教职人员、律师和地主。这次起义沉重打击了封建农奴制度，产生了全新的自耕农阶级，为资本主义发展铺设了道路。
英语国家概况精讲：第四章 向现代英国的过渡
Chapter 4：Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688) 向现代英国的过渡
I. Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1485)

向现代英国的过渡(1455年-1485年)
The Wars of Rose
玫瑰战争
The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened.
玫瑰战争是指，从1455年到1485年，以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特大家族和以白玫瑰为象征的约克家族之间战争的普遍接受的名称。1485年，兰开斯特家族的后代亨利都铎取得了博斯沃恩战役的胜利，建立了都铎王朝。这些战争使英国的封建主义受到致命打击，贵族阶层受到了削弱。
II. The English Reformation
英国的宗教改革
Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. There were three main causes: a desire for change and reform in the church had been growing for many years and now, encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people believed its time had come; the privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented; and Henry needed money.
最重要的是，亨利八世负责进行教会的宗教改革。改革原因有三个主要方面：改革教会的渴望已有多年，现在又受马丁路德成功的鼓舞，许多人认为时机已到；人们痛恨
就是说保持天主教教条及习俗，但不受教皇控制。她的宗教和解既不被极端的新教徒（即清教徒）所接受，也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接受。
近30年的时间，伊莉莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相斗杀，从而免于英国卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突。通过她从未具体化的联姻，伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好关系，因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险。
IV. The English Renaissance
英国文艺复兴
Distinctive features of the English Renaissance
英国文艺复兴的特点
1) English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics;
2) England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history elsewhere in Europe;
3) Owing to the great genius of the 14th century poet Chaucer, the native literature was sufficiently vigorous and experienced in assimilating for foreign influences without being subjected by them;
4) English Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England.
英国文艺复兴的五个特点：1）英国文化的复兴并不是直接通过古典作品，崦是通过受古典作品影响同时代的欧洲人实现的；2）英格兰作为一个与大陆隔离的国家，其社会历史进程很大程度上独立于欧洲其它国家；3）由于14世纪伟大的天才诗人乔叟的出现，英国本国文学得以蓬勃发展，能够在吸收外国文学影响的同时，并未处于从属地位；4）英国文艺复兴文学首先是艺术的，其次才是哲学的和学术的；5）文艺复兴和英格兰的宗教改革在时间上有所交叉。
VI. The Civil Wars and their consequences 内战
Because of the absolute rule of Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and the parliament developed into the civil war. The war began on August 22,1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death.

The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution. It has been seen as a conflict between the parliament and the King, and a conflict between economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle classed coincided with their religious ( Puritan) ideology while the Crown’s traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history.
由于查尔斯的“君权神授”统治权，他与议会的对质发展成了内战。战争开始于1642年8月22日，结束于1651年。最后查尔斯被处死。
英国内战又称为清教徒革命。这是议会和国王间的冲突，也是城市中产阶级的经济利益与皇室传统经济利益之间的冲突。城市中产阶级经济利益
同伙被立即处死，以及更严厉的反天主教法律的颁发。长斯结果是每年11月5日举行庆祝仪式，点燃火堆焚烧盖伊模拟像并燃放烟火。
英语国家概况精讲：第五章 大英帝国的兴衰.
Chapter 5：The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1688-1990)大英帝国的兴衰

I. Whigs and Tories
辉格党人和托利党人
These two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution (1688).
这两个政党名称皆起源于1688年的光荣革命。
The Whig were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whig were to form a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.
辉格党人是指那些反对绝对王权，支持新教徒宗教自由权利的人。辉格党人在19世纪中叶与持不同意见的托利党人组盟组成自由党。
The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings. The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party.
托利党人是指那些支持世袭王权、不愿去除国王的人。托利党是保守党的前身。
I. Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th Century
18世纪末的农业革命
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the “open-field” system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries. Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results:
18世纪末、19世纪初的农业革命期间，随着《圈地法》的颁布，传统的“开放田地”制结束。圈地运动持续了将近一个多世纪。农业圈地运动的利弊共存：
（1） Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small;
由于大农场兼并了小农场，农场成为越来越在的生产单位；
（2） More vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed, and diet became more varied;
人们消费的蔬菜，牛奶及奶制品越来越多，饮食种类愈加丰富；
（3） Enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in towns. Enclosure led to mass emigration, particularly to the New World;
圈地对佃家而言是场灾难，他们被赶出土地，被迫到城镇找工作。圈地运动导致了大规模的移民，尤其是移民至新大陆。
（4） A new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships.
农村关系中产生了新的阶级对立。
II. The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)
工业革命（1780-1830）
1．The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanisation of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
工业革命指的是17世纪末、18世纪初英国工业的机械化，以及因此而导致的社会结构和经济结构的变化。
2．Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the following factors:
英国
成为第一个工业化的国家，原因如下：
(1) Favourable geopraphical location. Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade;
优越的地理位置：英国地理位置优越，适合参与欧洲与世界贸易；
(2) Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society, which, after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies. International trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well out of new farming methods provided capital in large quantities for industralization.
政治局面稳定。17世纪后的英国社会宁静，对海外贸易和殖民地兴趣日增。国际贸易给商人和城市银行家带来财富，他们加上由于新农作法而发家的人们为工业化提供了大笔资金。
(3) Good foundation in economy. The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy.
1688年光荣革命限制了君主的权力，这使得强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响。
(4) It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports, or from rivers, which could distribute their products.
英国的主要城镇皆靠近海港或河流，货物运送便利。
(5) Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources.
英国许多河流不仅用于交通，还提供水力及蒸汽动力。英国还有可用的矿产资源。
(6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.
英国工程师为训练有素的手工艺人。
(7) The inventors were respected. They solved practical problems.
发明家受人尊重，他们解决了实际难题。
(8) Probably laissez faire and “Protestant work ethic” helped.
很可能利益于“放手干”及“新教工作道德”。
(9) England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union after 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers.
1707年后，英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士形成关税联盟，1807年后爱尔兰加入。因此，全国市场不再受阴于内部的关税障碍。
(10) The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by providing food for the rising population, labour for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry.
圈地运动和其它农业改良为增加的人口提供了粮食，为工厂提供了劳动力，为工业提供了所需的一些原材料。
3．Typical examples of the inventions during the Industrial Revolution
工业革命中一些重大创新
(1) John Kay’s flying shuttle in 1733;
1733年，约翰凯的飞梭；
(2) James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny in 1766;
1766年詹姆士哈格里夫斯詹妮纺纱机；
(3) Richard Arkwright’s waterframe in 176
9;
1769年理查德阿克赖特的水力纺织机；
(4) Samuel Crompton’s mule in 1779
1779年塞缪尔克朗普顿的走绽纺纱机；
(5) Edmund Cartwright’s power loom in 1784;
1784年爱德蒙卡特莱特发明的力织机；
(6) James Watt’s steam engine in 1765.
1765年詹姆斯瓦特的高效蒸汽机。
4．Consequences of the industrial Revolution
工业革命的结果
（1） Britain was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”;
英国成为了“世界工场”；
（2） Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the nation’s wealth.
城镇迅速兴起，成为国家财富的源泉。
（3） Mechanization destroyed the livelihood of those who could not invest in it . The working men worked and lived in a appalling conditions.
机械化摧毁了不能投入其中的人们的生活。工人们在可怕的条件下劳动与生活。
（4） The industrial revolution created the industrial working class, the proletariat, and it later led to trade unionism.
工业革命产生了工人阶级，即无产阶级。后来形成了工会制度。
III. The Chartist Movement (1836-1848)
宪章运动（1836-1848）

1. Reasons for parliamentary reforms.
议会改革的原因
(1) Power was monopolized by the aristocrats.
权力由贵族操纵。
(2) Representation of town and country, and North and South was unfair.
城镇和农村，北方和南方的代表权极不平等。
(3) There were also various so-called rotten or pocket boroughs.
还有各种称之为衰败或口袋选区的选区。
2．Three Reform Bills
三个改革法案v
Between 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills were passed.
1832年至1884年间通过了三个改革法案。
a) The Reform Act of 1832 (also called the “Greater Charter of 1832) abolished “rotten boroughs”, and redistributed parliamentary seats more fairly among the growing tows. It also gave the vote to many householders and tenant’s, based on the value of their property.
1832年的《改革法案》（也称为1832年的大宪章）废除了“衰败选区”；在新兴城镇中较为公平地重新分配了议席；以财产价值为基础给予许多屋主和佃家。
b) The New Poor Law of 1834 forced the poor people into work houses instead of giving them sufficient money to survive in their own homes.
1834年的新贫困法强迫穷人进工厂，ue256挥懈ue25eue370亲愎坏那ue1ab谧约旱募依锷ue303妗?
3．A People’s Charter
人民宪章
There was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of 1832 and the New Poor Law. In 1836, a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Working Men’s Association. They drew up a charter of political demands (a People’s Charter) in 1838, with the intention of presenting it to Parliament. It had six points: (1)the vote for all adult males; (2)voting by secret ballot; (3)equal electoral districts; (4)abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament; (5)payment of members of Parlia
ment; (6)annual Parliaments, with a General Election every June.
1832年的《改革法案》和《新贫困法》引起了普遍不满。1836年，一群技术工人和小店主组成伦敦工厂联盟。他们于1838年起草了有关政治要求的宪章（人民宪章），想把它呈送给议会。宪章有六点内容：（1）所有成年男子都有选举权；（2）进行无记名投票；（3）平等选区；（4）议员选举废除财产资格要求；（5）议员应有报酬；（6）议会每年六月进行大选。
4．Results of the Chartist Movement
宪章运动的结果。
Chartism failed because of its weak and divided leadership, and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism. The working class still immature, without the leadership of a political party armed with correct revolutionary theory. The Chartist movement was, however, the first nationwide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems. The 6 points were achieved very gradually over the period of 1858-1918, although the sixth has never been practical. Lenin said that Chartism was “the first broad, really mass, politically formed, proletarian revolutionary movement.”
由于领导层的软弱和分歧，由于缺少与工会的协调，宪章运动失败了。当时的工人阶级还未成熟，没有正确的革命理论武装的政党领导。但是，宪章运动是第一次全国范围的工人阶级运动，引起了对许多严重问题的关注。在1858至1918年间，六项要求逐渐达到，尽管第六项从未成为现实。列宁说宪章运动是“第一个广泛的、真正群众参与的，有政治组织形式的无产阶级革命运动。”
I. Trade Unions and the Labour Party
工会和工党
1. The Trade Union Act of 1871 legalized the trade unions and gave financial security.
1871年通过的《工会法》使工会合法化并给其财政保障。
2. The Labor Party had its origin in the Independent Labor Party(ILP), which was formed in January, 1893. In 1900, representatives of trade unions, the ILP, and a number of small socialist societies set up the Labor Representation Committee (LRC). The LRC changed its name to the Labor Party for the general election called for in 1906.
工党起源于独立工党，于1893年1月成立。1900年，工会代表，独立工党和许多小型社会主义社团一起成立了工人代表委员会。1906年的大选迫使工人代表委员会及时更名为工党。
II. Colonial Expansion
殖民扩张

1. The growth of dominions
自治领的兴起
English colonial expansion began with the colonization of Newfoundland in 1583. Encouraged by Britain’s control of the seas, especially by the rising tide of emigration, British colonialists stepped up their expansion to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, in the late 18th and the early 19th centuries. By 1900, Britain had built up a big empire, “on which the sun never set”. It consisted of a vast number of protector
ates, Crown colonies, spheres of influence, and self-governing dominions. It included 25% of the world’s population and area.
英国殖民扩张开始于1583年纽芬兰的殖民化。在18世纪末、19世纪初，受到海外移民浪潮的鼓舞，英国殖民者很快加他们的扩张到加拿大、澳大利亚、新西兰。到1900年英国已建立了“日不落”的大英帝国，包括受保护国、英国殖民地、势力范围和自治领，占世界人口与面积的25%。
Canada was ceded to Britain by the 1763 Treaty of Paris. French rights were guaranteed by the Quebec Act of 1774. The Canada Act of 1791 divided Canada into Upper Canada where the British had settled, and Lower Canada populated by the French. The British North America Act of 1867 established Canada as a dominion.
1763年签订的《巴黎条约》将加拿大割让给英国。1774年的《魁北克法》保证了法国的权益。之后，1791年《加拿娃哈哈》把加拿大分为上加拿大和下加拿大，前者是英国人的定居地，后者是法国人的居住点。1867年《英国北美法案》确定加拿大为自治领。
English began to transport convicts to Australia in 1788. Free settlement began in 1816, and no convicts were sent to Australia after 1840. The gold rushes (1851-1892) brought more people to Australia, and in 1901 the six self-governing wer united in one dominion-the independent Commonwealth of Australia.
1788年英国人开始把囚犯流放到澳大利亚。1816年开始可以自由定居，1840年后囚犯不再流放到澳大利亚。1851年至1892年的淘金热使更多的人拥到澳洲。1901年，六个自治领统一为一个自治领—澳大利亚独立联邦。
New Zealand became a separate colony of Britain in 1841, achieved self-government in 1857, became a dominion under the British crown in 1907 and was made completely independent in 1931.
1841年新西兰成为独立殖民地，1857年实现自治，1907年成为英皇属下的自治领，1931年完全独立。
1. The Conquest of India
征服印度
The British East India Company established in 1600. By 1819 the British conquest of most India was almost complete. After the muting of Bengal army in 1857, the control of India passed to the British Crown and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877.
1600年英国东印度公司的建立是经济渗透的实例。到1819年英国对印度的征服已基本完成。1857年东印度公司孟加拉军队的当地士兵发动兵变后，1858年印度改由英国君主统治。1877年维多利来女王正式成为印度女皇。
2. The Scramble for Africa
对非洲的掠夺
At the beginning of the 19th century British possessions were confined to forts and slave trading posts on the west coast. Over the 19th century the interior of Africa was gradually discovered and colonized by Europeans. Britain led the way in the race. Apart from the colonies in the South and West, Britain was also involved in
the North East in Egypt and the Sudan.
19世纪初英国的占领地局限于西海岸的堡垒和奴隶交易点。整个19世纪欧洲人逐渐发现并殖民了非洲内陆。在这场瓜分竞赛中英国占了较大的优势。除了不断扩张的南部和西部殖民地后，英国又凯觎东北的埃及和苏丹。
3. Aggression against China
侵略中国
In 1840, the Opium War broke out between Britain and China. Since then, Britain gradually invaded many coastal areas and imposed a series of unequal treaties upon China.
1840年英国和中国发动了鸦片战争。从那时起，英国逐渐侵略了中国的许多沿海城市，并签定了许多不平等条约。
VI. Twentieth Century
二十世纪
1. Britain and the First World War
英国和第一次世界大战
The Work War I was fought from 1914 to 1918 primarily between two European Power blocs: “the Central power”. Germany and Austria-Hungary, and the “Allies”, Britain, France and Russia. During the war, the Britain lost much. Apart from the loss of manpower, there had been considerable disruption of the economy and society. Out of the war settlement came the establishment of the league of Nations.
第一次世界大战是从1914年至1918年，战争主要在两大欧洲集团间进行：“同盟国”，包括德国和奥匈帝国，和“协约国”，包括英国、法国和俄罗斯。一战中英国损失惨重。除了劳动力损失，还有巨大的经济与社会瓦解。
2. Britain Between the Two World Wars
两次世界大战期间的英国
The effects of the New York Stock Market Crash of 1929 soon spread throughout Europe and by 1931 Britain was entering the Great depression.
1929年纽约股票交易所崩溃的影响迅速波及欧洲，到1931年英国进入经济大萧条。
3. Britain and the Second World War
英国与第二次世界大战
As Adolf Hitler and Nazism showed off their aggressive momentum in Europe, Chamberlain, the Prime Minister, found his policy of appeasement of German aggression was no longer tenable, and was forced to declare war on Germany on September 3,1939.
当阿道夫希特勒及纳粹主义显示他们对欧洲的侵略意图时，首相张伯伦发现他的绥靖政策已站不住脚，只得于1939年9月3日对德宣战。
4. Postwar Britian
战后的英国
(1) One of the most far-reaching consequences of the War was that it hastened the end of Britain’s empire.
二战最为深远的结果之一是加速了大英帝国的瓦解。
(2) In 1952 Princess Elizabeth was crowned Queen Elizabeth II. Many people through television saw the ceremony.
1952年伊莉莎白公主加冕成为伊莉莎白女王二世。新发明的电视使许多人看到了加冕仪式的过程。
(4) In January 1973, Britain became a full member of the European Economic Community which was still called the Common Market in 1973. Britain witnessed the first oil shock in 1973.
1973年1月，英国终于成为欧洲经济
共同体的正式成员国。1973年仍称为共同市场。1973年英国经历了第一次石油禁运。
(5) Mrs Thatcher
撒切尔主义
Thatcherism referred to the policies put forward by Margaret Thatcher, the first woman prime minister in England in 1979. The main contents of her policies included the return to private ownership of state-owned industries, the use of monetarist policies to control inflation, the weakening of trade unions the strengthening of the role of market forces in the economy, and an emphasis on law and order. To some extent her program was successful and she led one of the most remarkable periods in the British economy.
1979年撒切尔夫人成为英国第一任女首相。她提出的政策被为“撒切尔主义”。其内容包括国有工业私有化，采用货币主义政策以控制通货膨胀，削弱工会的影响，加强市场因素在经济中的作用，强调法律和秩序。在一定程度上讲，她的计划是成功的。她领导英国经济度过了一段最繁华的时期之一。
英语国家概况精讲：第七章 英国政府机构
Chapter 7：Government and Administration 英国政府机构
The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, the head of state is a king or a queen. The United Kingdom is governed, in the name of the Sovereign by His or Her Majesty’s Government. The System of parliamentary government is not based on a written constitution, the British constitution is not set out in any single document. It is made up of statute law, common law and conventions. The Judiciary determines common law and interprets statutes.

联合王国是君主立宪制国家,国家的首脑是国王或女王。联合王国以君的名义,由国王或女王陛下政府治理。英国的议会制度并不是基于成文宪法,英国宪法不由单一文件构成,而由成文法,习惯法和惯例组成。司法部门裁定习惯法或解释成文法。
I．The Monarchy
君主制
eth II, her title in the United Kingdom is “Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Her Other Realms and Territories, Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.
伊莉莎白二世，她的全称是“上帝神佑，大布列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国以及她的其他领土和领地的女王，英联邦元首，国教保护者伊莉莎白二世。”
Queen is the symbol of the whole nation. In law, She is head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature, head of the judiciary, the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces and the “supreme governor” of the Church of England. She gives Royal Assent to Bills passed by parliament.
女王是国家的象征。从法律上讲，她是行政首脑，立法机构的组成部分，司法首脑，全国武装部队总司令，英ue308ue30c獭爸粮呶奚稀钡牧煨洹Ｋue431蚊ue3d5紫嗪椭匾ue014恼ue47fue190僭薄６砸榛嵬üue41e姆ò父ue266栌ue2c8肌?br>

monarch actually has no real power. The monarch’s power are limited by law and Parliament. Constitutional monarchy began after the Glorious Revolution in 1688.
君主政体实际已无实权。它的权力受限于法律和议会。君主立宪制是从1688年的光荣革命后开始。
III．Parliament
议会
United Kingdom is a unitary, not a federal, state. Parliament consists of the Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
英国是中央集权国家，而不是联邦制国家。议会由君主，上议院和下议院组成。
main functions of Parliament are: (1) to pass laws; (2) to provide, by voting for taxation, the means of carrying on the work of government; (3) to examine government Policy and administrations, including proposal for expenditure; and (4) to debate the major issues of the day.
议会的主要作用是：（1）通过立法；（2）投票批准税为政府工作提供资金；（3）检查政府政策和行政管理，包括拨款提议；（4）当天的议题辩论。
House of Lords is made up of the Lords Spiritual and the Lords Temporal. The main function of the House of Lords is to bring the wide experience of its members into the process of lawmaking. In other words, the non-elected House is to act as a chamber of revision, complementing but not rivaling the elect House.
贵族院（上议院）由神职贵族和世俗贵族组成。它的主要作用是用议员的丰富经验帮助立法。换而言之，非选举的上议院是修正议院，补充而非反对由选举产生的下议院。
House of Common is elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 651 Members of Parliament (MPs). It is in the House of Commons that the ultimate authority.
下议院（平民院）由成人普选产生，由651名议员组成。下议院拥有最终立法权。
n is divided 651 constituencies. Each of the constituencies returns one member to the House of Commons. A general Election must be held every five years and is often held at more frequent intervals.
英国被划分为651个选区，每个选区选一名下议院议员。大选必须五年举行一次，但经常不到五年就进行一次选举。
n has a number of parties, but there are only two major parties. These two parties are the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Since 1945, either the Conservative Party or the Labour Party has held power. The party which wins sufficient seats at a General Election to command a majority of Government. The leader of the majority party is appointed Prime Minister. The party which wins the second largest number of seats becomes the Official Opposition, with its own leader and “shadow cabinet ”. The rule of Opposition is to help the formulation of policy. Criticizes the Government and debate with the Government.
英国有很多政党，但有两个主要的政党—保守党和工党。从1945年以来，两党一直轮流执政，在大选中
获多数议席因而在下议院拥有多数支持者的政党组建政府，多数党领袖由君主任命为首相。获得第二多数议席的政党则正式成为“反对党”，有自己的领袖和影子内阁。反对党的目的是帮助制定政策，它可以经常给政府提出批评性的建议和修正议案。
Cabinet and Ministry
内阁和内阁部长
1. The Prime Minister presides over the Cabinet, is responsible for the allocation of functions among ministers and informs the Queen at regular meetings of general business of the Government. Cabinet members hold meetings under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister for a few hours each week to decide Government policy on major issues.
首相主持内阁，负责分配大臣们的职能，在定期会见女王时向女王报告政府事务。内阁在 首相的主持下，每周开会几小时，以决定在重大问题上政府的政策。
2. Ministers are responsible collectively to Parliament for all Cabinet decisions; individual Ministers are responsible to Parliament for the work of their department.
内阁的所有决定由大臣集体向议会负责，各大臣又为各自部门的工作向议会负责。
IV．The Privy Council
枢密院
1. The Privy Council was formerly the chief source of executive power in the state and give private advice to the King. So the Privy Council was also called the King’s Council in history. Today its role is largely formal, advising the sovereign to approve certain government decrees.
枢密院原来是政府行政权力的源泉，给君主提供“私人”建议。它在历史上也称为国王议会。今天它的主要作用是礼节性的，如建议君主批准政府的法令。
2. Its membership is about 400, and includes all Cabinet ministers, the speaker of the House of Common and senior British and Commonwealth statement.
它的主要成员有400人左右，包括内阁阁员，下议院院长及英国，英联邦的高级政治家等。
V．Government Department and the Civil Service
政府各部和公务员部
1. The principal Government department main includes: the Treasury, the House of office, the Foreign and Commonwealth office, the Ministry of Defense…
主要的政府部门包括：财务部，内务部，外交部，国防部等。
2. Members of the Civil Service are called Civil Services. They staff government departments. Civil Servants are recruited mainly by competitive examination. Civil servants do not belong to any political party. Changes of Government do not involve changes in departmental staff, There are about 541800 civil servants in Britain now.
文职人员部的成员被成为公务员。公务员主要是通过竞争考试录用。公务员部门不属于任何政党，政府的变更并不影响部门职员的变更。英国现约有541800名公务员。
VI．Local Government
地方政府部门
1. There are two main tiers of local authority throughout England and Wales: c
ounties and the smaller districts. Now, England and Wales are divided into 53 counties which are sub-divided into 369 districts.
英格兰和威尔士实行两级地方政府制—郡和比郡小的区。现在英格兰和威尔士分为53个郡，郡下分为369个区。
2. Greater London is divided into 32 boroughs.
大伦敦被分为32个行政区。
英语国家概况精讲：第九章 英国社会
Chapter 9：Social Affairs 英国社会
I. Health and Social Services

全国医疗保健计划
1. Britain is regarded as a welfare state. This system is funded out of national insurance contributions and taxation. In Britain the term applies mainly to the National Health Service (NHS), national insurance and social security.
英国被认为是福利制度的国家。此制度的所需资金来源于全国保险税和赋税。在英国，这主要是指国民保健制度，国民保险和社会保障制度。
2. The National Health Service provides for every resident, regardless of income, a full range of medical services. The service was established in the U.K. in 1948. Over 82 per cent of the cost of the health service in Great Britain id funded out of general taxation. The rest is met from: (1) the NHS element of National Insurance contributions; (2) charges towards the cost of certain items such as drugs prescribed by family doctors, and general dental treatment; (3) other receipts, including land sales and the proceeds of income generation schemes.
不管个人收入如何，国民保健制度为每个居民提供全面医疗服务。英国于1948年确立此制度。英国国民保健制度82%以下的费用来自普通税收，其他部分来自（1）国民保险金中的国民保险金部分；（2）象对家庭一生开的药单和普通牙科治疗所收的费用；（3）其他收入，包括出售土地和增收计划的收益。
3. There are proportional charges for most types of HNS dental treatment, including examinations. Sight test are free to children. No one is liable to be charged by the National Health Service for treatment in an accident, emergency or for an infectious disease. Central government is directly responsible for the NHS, which is administered by a range of local health authorities and health boards throughout the U..
国民保健制度中多数牙科治疗都要收取一定比例的费用，包括检查费。视力检查对儿童免费。国民保健制度对事故，急诊或传染病的治疗不收费，中央政府直接负责国民保健制度，由全国各地的保健机构和卫生委员会实施。
4. The family health services are those given to patients by doctors, dentists, opticians and pharmacists. In order to obtain the benefits of the NHS a person must normally be registered on the list of a general practitioner (GP, sometimes knows as a “family doctor”).
家庭保健服务由医生、牙医、眼科大夫和药剂师提供给病人。为获得国民保健制度的服务，人
们必须在普通开业医生的名册上注册。
5. A full range of hospital services is provided by district general hospital. There are also specialist hospital or units for children, people suffering from mental illness, those with learning disabilities, and elderly people, and for the treatment of specific diseases.
地区普通医院提供全面的医院服务。也有为儿童，精神病人，有学习障碍者，老人和特殊病人开设的专门医院或病区。
6. The National Health Service is the largest single employer of labour in the U.K. NHS has suffered from underfunding in recent decades, as a result of which many better-off people have been turning to private medical health care.
国民保健制度是英国最大的用人机构。近几十年来，因为资金不足，许多比较富裕的人正逐渐转向私人的医疗保健机构。
7. Personal social services in Britain assist elderly people, disabled people, people with learning disabilities or mental illness, children, and families facing special problems. These statutory service are provided by local government social services authorities.
在英国，个人社会服务向老人，残疾人，有学习障碍者，精神病人，有特殊家庭困难的人等。地方政府社会服务委员会提供法定援助。
II. social Security
社会保险
1. The social security system is designed to secure a basic standard of living for people in financial need. Nearly a third of government expenditure is devoted to the social security programme which provides financial help for people who are elderly, sick, disabled, unemployed, widowed, bringing up children or on very low incomes.
社会保险制度设立的目的是保障经济困难的人们的基本生活水平，政府开支的近三分之一用于社会保险计划。此计划给老人，病人，残疾人，失业者，寡妇，抚育幼儿者或低收入者提供经济帮助。
2. Administration in Great Britain is handled by separate executive agencies of the Department of Social Security. In Northern Ireland by the Social Security Agency.
大不列颠的社会保险由社会保险部独立执行机构管理，在北爱尔兰则是社会保险局。
3. contributory social security benefits, it include:( 1) retirement pension; (2) unemployment pension; (3) sickness and invalidity benefit and (4) Maternity allowance and widows’s benefits.
需要先交费的社会安全福利（个人有工作收入时交，无收入时领），其中包括：退休金，失业金，病残福利金，孕产期补助金，寡妇补助金。
4. non-contributory social security benefits, it include: (1) war pensions;(2) industrial injuries disablement benefit;(3) child benefit and (4) family credit.
不需要先交费的福利金，包括战争伤亡抚恤金，工伤致残救济金，儿童补助金，低收入家庭补助金。
III. Religion宗教
1. Everyone in Britain has the right to religious freedom with out
interference from the community or the State. He may change his religion at will may manifest his faith in teaching, worship and observance. Except that the Lord Chancellor may be a Roman Catholic, public offices are open without distinction to members of all churches or none.

在英国，人人都有信仰宗教的权利，社会和政府不得干涉。他可以随意改变宗教信仰，可以在教职，礼拜或仪式中表明他的信仰。除了娃哈哈官不可以是罗马天主教徒外，公共职务对各种信仰或没有信仰的人一律公开。
2. Established churches
国教
There are two established church in Britain: in England the church of England and Scotland the Church of England.
英国有两大国教，在英格兰是英格兰国教，苏格兰是苏格兰教会（长老教）。
3. Church of England is uniquely related to the Crown in that the Sovereign must be a member of that Church and as “Defender of the Faith”. The Church is also linked with the State through the House of loads. The church of England is not free to change its form of worship, as laid down in the Book of Common Prayer without the consent of Parliament.
英格兰国教与君主有独特的联系。因为君主作为“国教的捍卫者”必须是此教会的一员，他在登基时必须承诺维持国教。国教还通过上议院与政府联系。没有议会同意，英格兰教会不可随意改变“国教祈祷书”中规定的礼拜仪式。
4. The government of the Church of Scotland is Presbyterian, that is, government by ministers and elders, all of whom are ordained to office. The Monarch is normally represented at the general assembly by the Lord High Commissioner.
英格兰教的管理时长老制，也就是由教士和长老治理。他们被授予圣职，王室高级代表通常代表君主光临会议。
5. Unestablished churches
非国教教会
There are include: the Anglican Churches(圣公会)，the Free Churches(自由教)，the Roman Catholic Church（罗马天主教）。
IV. Festival and Public Holidays
节假日
The Christian festival of the year and Christmas, Easter, and Whit Sunday.
其主要的节日有圣诞节，复活节，圣灵降临节

英语国家概况精讲：第十章 体育运动
Chapter 10：Sports 体育运动
1. Many international sports were introduced by the British who take their leisure time very seriously. There is widespread participation in sport in Britain.

许多国际体育项目是由认真对待休闲时间的英国人引进的，在英国，人们广泛参与体育。
2. Football ( or “soccer” as it is colloquially called ), the most popular sport in England as well as in Europe, has its traditional home in England where it was developed in the 19th century.
足球（口语叫”soccer”）,在英格兰和欧洲是最受欢迎的运动，其传统老家在英格兰，出现于19世纪。
3. The game “Rugby” was invented at Rugby School in Warwich shi
re in the early 19th century.
拉格比球比赛19世纪初创立于沃尔威克郡的拉格比学校，因此而得名。
4. Cricket, the most typically English of sports, has been in existence since the 16th century. On an international level, 5-day Cornhill Test Matches.
板球，是英国人最典型的体育运动，自从16世纪以来已存在。国际比赛是5天的康希尔决赛。
5. Although tennis has been played for centuries, the modern game originated in England in late 19th. The main tournament is the annual Wimbledon fortnight, one of the 4 tennis “Grand Slam” tournaments.
尽管网球已打了好几个世纪，但现代比赛却起源于19世纪末的英格兰。主要比赛是一年一度的温布尔登两周赛，这是四大满贯网球锦标赛之一。
6. There is a considerable following and participation of athletics in Britain. For example, the London Marathon, which takes place every spring.
英国参加田径的人很多，例如伦敦的马拉松塞，每年春季举行。
7. The home of golf is Scotland where the game has been played since the 17th century and naturally the oldest golf club in the world is there: The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers. The Walker Cup for amateurs and the Ryder Cup for professionals.
高尔夫球的故里是苏格兰，自从17世纪以来这项运动就在那儿盛行。全世界最古老的高尔夫俱乐部也在那里：爱丁堡高尔夫球会员荣誉公司。业余球员参加沃尔克公开赛，职业球员参加雷德尔杯。
英语国家概况精讲：第十四章 美国人口种族
英语国家概况美国部分精讲系列
chapter 14： and Ethnic groups

必背细节
United States of the American is the third most populous county in the world after Chind and India.美国是世界人口第三大国，仅次于中国和印度。
2。Immigration accounts for a major source of population growth,The United States has a more or less open-door policy to immigtants from independence until Island of New York was an important immigration reception spot in the 1890s and at the turn of the century.19世纪末20世纪初，纽约的埃利斯岛是一个重要的移民入境接待点。
3。Almost 20 million people or 7.8% of the total population were immigrants in n 80% and 90% of immigration to the United States now is from Asian and Hispanic countries.如今美国移民的80%到90%主要来源于亚洲和拉美国家。
4。Arizona,Nevada,and Florida have been the fastest growing states in population for the last 20 years.在过去的二十年里，亚利桑那，内华达和佛罗里达是人口增长最快的州。
5。The first immigrants in the American history cane from England and Netherlands.
美国历史是第一批移民来自英国和荷兰。
6。The first of these immigration waves in the mid-1810s and reached the highest point in second wave covered the period between 1860 and 1890.
The largest of the three immigration wave in American was from 1890-1914.三次移民浪潮中最大的一次是1890-1914年。
in five American moves to a new home every year seeking new job opportunity,a better climate of other goals.有1/5的美国人每年搬一次家。
8。美国的四次大规模的人口流动：
流动方向
the Frist 1865-1880 east coast ------west
the Second 1980-1920 rural areas ------cities
the Third 1920----1960 the south/black people ----other areas
the fourth 1960-now Northeast /Central-N----the West/the South
9。A large number of blank people move out of the south to other areas during the period between 1920-1960.大批黑人离开南方涌向外地发生在1920-1960年间。
10。The largest of the racial and ethnic minorities in the United States is the blacks who number about 12.1% of the population. The first blacks were brought to North America as slaves in 1619.
美国人口最多的少数民族是黑人，大约占总人口的12。1%，第一批黑人作为奴隶于1619年运抵北美。
11。three major Hispanic groups historically have had the greatest influence on the United are Mexico-Americans of Chicanos ,the Puerto Ricans and the Cuban-Americans.三大对美国影响最大的讲西班牙语的群体为：墨西哥后裔美国人，波多黎各人，古巴裔美国人。（一句话回答）
12。The most important obstacle to Hispanic success in the labor maket is their low ics have the highest school dropout rate of any major racial and ethnic group.讲西班牙语的美国人在其他种族的民族中失学率最高，因此，阻挡他们在劳动力市场获得成功的最主要是教育程度低。
13。The Asian-Americans are the fastest-growing racial and ethnic group in the United States,The largest group of Asian-Americans are the s say three Asian traditions best explain the success of Asian-American:eduction ,hardwork,and family.
美国少数民族人口中增长最快是亚裔美国人，亚裔美国人中又以华裔美国人最多，专家指出亚洲三大传统可以用来解释亚裔美国人的成功：教育，工作努和和家庭。（一句话回答）
14。Traditionally,the mainstream American were called WASPs,that is ,White Anglo-Saxon Protestants.传统上读，美国人的主流是祖先为英国新教徒的白人。
还有几个必背解释，
1。WAPs 2001已考，估计不会再考，即上述第十二条。
2。The Hispanics 讲西班牙语的（人或民族）
The Hispanics usually are Spanish-speaking person of Latin-American origin who live in the United there are three major Hispantic groups which have grest influence on the are Mexico-American of Chicano ,Pueto Ricans and Cuban-American.
英语国家概况精讲：第十五章 美国历史（一）
英语国家概况美国部分精讲系列
Chapter 15: American History(1) 美国历史（一）

"first A
merican "were the first English colony in the Americas was founded at Jamestown ,Virginaia,in n 1607 and 1733 the British eastablished 13 colonies along the east coast of North American.“最早的美国人”是印地安人，英国于1607年在美国建立了第一块殖民地，即在弗吉尼亚的詹姆斯，1607-1733年间，英国在北美洲的东海岸建立了十三个殖民地。
2。In 1620,201 of Pilgrimw sailed to the New World in a ship called arrived at Plymouth and built the Plymouth colony.1620年，有201名英国清教徒乘坐一名为”五月花号“的船到达了普利茅斯并建立了殖民地。
3。From 1630 to 1643,some 200 ships transported over 20000 Englishmen to the Massachusetts Bay colony.
从1630-1643年，约有200艘船把2万英国人抵马萨者萨弯殖民地。
4。The colonists were building a new way of life in the New were a number of features which would play a role in forming the American were :representative from of goverment,rule of law,respect of individual rights,religious tolerance and a strong spirit of individual enterprise.殖民主义者新生活方式的这些特点在美国人性格形成中发挥了重要作用：建立代义制政府，法治，对个人权利的尊重，宗教上的宽容及强烈的个人进取心。
5。In September 1744,the Frist Continental Congress was held ih Philadelphia which encouraged American to refuse to buy British goods.1744年9月，第一届大陆仁义在费城如开，鼓励美国人拒绝买英货。
6。The Declaration of Independence drafted by Thomas Jefferson of Declaration is a clear explanation of the political theory behind the revolution and this theory came from the British philosopher John Locke.
《独立宣言》是由托马斯。杰文逊起草的，它明确阐述了支撑这场革命的政治理论，这一理论来源于英国著名哲学家约翰。洛克。
7。On the Christmas Day of 1776,the Americans defeated the British troops at Trenton,New long afterwards ,the Americans troops deteated the British at Saratoga in Northern New was a great turning point of the War of Independence,leading dirtctly to an alliance between the U.S and France.
1766年的圣诞节，美军在新泽西的特伦顿挫败英军，这之后不久，美军在萨拉托加击败英军，史称“萨拉托加大捷”这次胜利被认为是北美独立战争的转折点，并直接导致美法联军的建立。
8。In September ,1783,the Treaty of Paris was signed,Britain recognized the indeperdance of the U.S.1783年9月簦订《巴黎和约》，英正式承认美国独立。
9。The Federalist Papers are regarded as the best explanation of the constitution as well as one of the most important works on political theory.
<联邦文集》被认为是对美国宪法最好的解释，也是美国最重要的政治理论著作之一。
10。The first
ten amendments to the U.S Constitution,which was called the Bill of Rights,adopted in 1791 which promise to protect individuals''rights.
成为宪法的前十条修正案正案被称为《人权法案》。
Articles of Confederation was accepted by all the states by Match has two serious weaknesses:1>there was no national executive of law-enforcing branch;2>Congress has no power to raise taxes.
1781年美国各州批准了被称为《联邦条款》的文件，它有两缺陷：一是没有执行或执法机构二是国会由于过于庞大起不到政府的作用，而且国会无权征税。
12。The U.S went to war with Britain in 1812,the last war fought between these two countries.英美最后一次交火是1812的英美战争。
13。During the 13 years of Indian wars after the War of Independence,the Americans forced England to give up the Old Northwest and they forced Spain to open the Mississippi crossing of the Mississippi helped persuade Napoleon to sell the Louisiana Territory to the 1853,in the Gadaden Purchase another 30000 spuare miles of Mexican land were added to the territory of the U.S.
在独战后十三的印第安战争中，美国人适使英国放弃了旧西北地区，使西班牙开放密西西比河，促使拿破伦把路易斯字那志给美国，在1853年的加兹登购买中，另外的3万平方米的墨西哥土地也为美国领土。
14。The twp famous leaders of black movement in the U.S in the 1830s were Garrison and Frederick Douglass.在19世纪30年代两位著名的黑人领袖为加里森和道格拉斯
15。The Union army under the command of Ulysses deteated the Confedetate army at Gettysburg,Pensylvania,this victory was the turning point of the Civil War.北方联军在尤利西斯。格兰特的指挥下，在宾夕法尼亚的葛底斯堡击败了南方联盟军，葛底斯堡大捷是美国内战的转折点。
16。Tn the Civil war,Lincoln realized that he could win support for the Union at home and abroad by making the war a just war against he issued the famous Emancipation Proclamation.美国内战期间，林肯发表了《解放奴隶宣言》
17。On November 19,1863,Abraham Lincoln made a short speech on the occasion of dedicating the national cemetery at ended his speech with these memorable words:"That government of the people ,by the people,for the people,shall not perish from the earth.
1863年11月9日，林肯在葛底斯堡阵亡将士公墓落成仪式上发表了简短的演说，他以另人难忘的语言结束了演说“民有，民治，民享的政府永远不会从地球上消失。
18。A conference was held in Philadelphia in May 1787 to consider what should be done to make the Articles of Confederation of the states except Rhode Island were represented at the Consititutional Convention.
1787年在费城召开的制宪会议上，除了罗得岛外，其他所有州都参加了
，大家讨论如何使《联邦条款》能够满足需要。
另外有几个名词解释和问答题也要记得：
包括：Boston Tea Party 波士顿倾茶事件
the Declaration of Independence 独立宣言
the Emancipation of Proclamation 解放奴隶宣言
英语国家概况精讲：第十六章 美国历史（二）
英语国家概况美国部分精讲
Chapter 16: American History(2) 美国历史（二）

（1900-1945)必背细节
1． In 1880,the U.S ranked first in the world in the production of steel; in 1900,the U.S. produced 245million tons of coal, ranking first in the world.1880年美国钢产`量世界第一，1900年煤产量世界第一。
2． Large corporation ,urbanization and new technology were the three features in the growth of American economy at the beginning of the 20 th century.大公司的出现，城市化及新技术的迅速发展是美国20世纪初经济增长出现的三大特点。
3． In 1903,the Wright brothers flew a plane for a brief 12 seconds at Kitty Hawk,North Carolina. This was the beginning of the appearance of the plane. In 1911,Glenn designed and flew a successful plane. 1903年，莱特兄弟发明了第一架飞机，但只飞行了12秒。1911年格伦。E。库利斯设计了一架飞机，并成功试飞。
4． At the beginning of the WWI, the impartial neither in action, nor in pursued a policy of pro-Ally partiality.第一次世界大战开始时，美国宣布保持中立，但在行动和思想上都没有做到中立，美国真正奉行的是支持同盟国的政策。
5． The 1920s in the U.S. has been described by many historians as a period of material success and spiritual frustration or confusion and purposelessness.许多历史学家都把美国的二十世纪二十年代描写成一个物质上成功，精神是迷惘或漫无目标的时期。
6． The stock market crash was the beginning of long economic depression in the late 1920S and 1930S.股票市场的崩溃是1929-1933年的经济大萧条的开端。
7． The aim of President Roosevelt’s New measures was to save American democracy and the capitalist system.罗斯福总统“新政：措施的目的在于”拯救美国民主“及克服资本主义制度有史以来最严重的经济制度。
8． In the early 1930S,the American foreign policy was isolationism, to keep the U.S. out of the fighting that was going on in Europe and Asia.在30年代初期，美国奉行的是孤立主义的外交政策，即使美国远离欧洲和亚洲的秸ue292?br>
9． During the WWII, the postponement of the opening of the Second Front was a reflection of the American’s desire not to give the Soviet Union the possibility of quick expansion.二战期间，美国延缓开辟第二战场就反映出美国不让苏联有迅速扩张的可能性
10． American diplomacy in WWII was largely diplomacy towards Britain and the Soviet were two guiding principles behind all diplomat
ic activities:1>to win the war;2>to establish t postwar political structure in accord with American interests and to prevent the Soviet Union from over-expansion.二战期间，美国的外交政策大体上是针对英国的前苏联的，所有外交政策的两个主导原则是：羸得战争，按美国利益建立战后政治格局并阻止苏联的过度扩张。
11． The leaders of the U.S. the Soviet Union and Britain met three times during the WWII.1>The first summit was held at Teheran in November the conference it was decided that a large-scale attack on the south of France would be launched in May ,1944,which was codenamed Overlord.2>The second conference was held in Yalta in February,1945,it decided on the setting-up of a world organization: the United Nation .3>The third conference was held at Potsdam, which confirmed the temporary division of Europe agreed to at Yalta.二战期间，英，美，苏三中领导人共会晤了三次，第一次是在1943年11月在德黑兰会议，该会义决定进行代号为“霸王行动”的军事行动，向法国南部大举进攻，第二次是1945年2月的雅尔塔会议，本次会议决定建立联合国组织，第三次是在1945年7。8月间在柏林城外举行的波茨坦会议，该会主要确认了雅尔雅尔塔会议关于欧洲格局的暂时分配。
必背解释
1． The Muckrakers(黑幕揭发者)
The Muckrakers were a group of reform-minded journalists who made investigations and exposed the dark sides of the society.
Progressive Movement(进步运动/进步主义)（Progressivism）
it was a movement at the turn of the 20th century which demanded government regulation of the economy and social conditions, spread quickly with the support of large number of people across the country. The Progressive Movement was not an organized campaign with clearly defined goals. Rather, it was a number of diverse efforts at political,social and economic reforms.
z faire(放任主义)
it was an economic practice which stressed that the management of the economy should be left to the business people and the government should merely preserve order and protect property.
Red scare(红色恐惧)
Between 1919 and 1920,the Red Scare happened in America where at that time a highly aggressive and intolerance nationalism existed. On November 7,1919 and January 2,1920,the Justice Department launched two waves of mass attests. Over 4000 suspected Communists and radicals were arrested and many were forced to leave the U.S.
Ku Klux Klan(KKK)三K党
The KKK was first organized in 1866 and then reformed in 1867 after the Civil War in the South and by 1924 it claimed a membership of four to five million. It was a violent society which terrorized and attacked on not only blacks ,but also progressives, Communist and socialist party members, etc.
New Deal(罗斯福新政)
it was put forward by American President Roosevelt who wanted to do something
to deal with the Great Depression at that time. It passed a lot of New Deal laws and set up some efficient social security systems. The New Deal helped to “save American democracy” and to overcome the most serious economic crisis of the capitalist system up to that time.
ionism(孤立主义)
it was the American foreign policy in the early tried to keep the U.S out of the fighting that was going on in Europe and Asia.
英语国家概况精讲：第十七章 美国历史（三）
英语国家概况美国部分精讲
Chapter 17 American History(III) in Era(1945-1980S)

必背细节
1. On Feb 22,1946,George Kennan, a high-ranking official in the American embassy to Moscow, wrote in the telegram that the should be vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies. Later the containment policy became the official policy towards the Soviet Union.1946年2月22日，美国驻苏联大使乔治。凯南在他的电报中主张对苏联采取遏制政策。
2． The open declaration of the containment policy was made by President Truman on March 12,1949 in a speech to the joint session of congress.1949年3月12日杜鲁门总统在国会联席会议上公开宣布了遏制政策。
3． In order to protect Western Europe from possible Soviet expansion, the d to offer Western European countries economic aid. This later came to be called the Marshall plan.为了保护西欧不受苏联扩张影响，美国决定给予西欧国家经济支援，此举后来被称作“马歇尔计划。”
4． The North Atlantic Treaty, which was signed on April 4,1949,marked the beginning of s in setting up a military alliance around the Soviet Union and its allies.美国于1949年4月4日签订的北大西洋公约标志着美国开始致力于在苏联及其盟国周围建立军事同盟。
5． When the Korean War broke out in June,1950,Truman sent the 7th Fleet to the Taiwan Straits to prevent the PLA from liberating Taiwan.1950年6月朝鲜战争爆发，美国杜鲁门政府第七舰队进驻台湾海峡，阻止中国人民解放军解放台湾。
6． The Montgomery boycott was led by Martin Luther King, Jr,a young black clergyman who later became a national leader of the Civil Rights movement.1955年的蒙哥马利抵制公共汽车公司运动由小马丁。路德。金领导，他是一个黑人牧师，后来成为民权运动的全国领导人。
7． Since 1945 the United States had entered a twenty-five-year economic cornerstones were the automobile,housing,and defense industries.自1945年以来，美国经济进入了长达25年的繁荣期，经济繁荣的基本为汽车，住房和国防工业。
8． Between 1946 and 1961,more than 63.5 million babies were born in the U.S,making the baby-boom generation the largest by far in the American history.从1946年到1961年，是美国历史上的生育高峰期。
9． When the Cuban Missile Crisis happened in 1962,the p
resident of American is Kennedy,the president of Russia is Khrushchev.1962年古巴导弹危机爆发时，美国在位总统为肯尼迪，苏联首领为赫鲁晓夫。
10． Richard Nixon ,who was elected on a platform of ending the Vietnam War, changed the strategy into “Vietnamization” of the war building up South Vietnamese troops to replace American fighting force.里查德。尼克松以结束越战作为自己的竞选纲领，提出把战略改为战争越南化，即建立越南军队以其代替美国军队。
11． In the late 1960s and early 1970s the U.S began to look for a way to improve relations with China so as to get China’s help for its withdrawal from south Vietnam and to work with China against Soviet expansion.20世纪60年代末70年代初，美国改善对华关系的有两上：一是以便从越撤军时能得到中国的帮助，再是希望与中国合作联手对付苏联的扩张。
12． In February 1972,President Nixon visited China and met Mao Zedong and the two countries issued the Shanhai visit ended twenty-three years of hostility and led to the establishment of diplomatic relations in January 1979.1972年2月尼克松与毛泽东东会晤，双方签署了《上海联合公报》。
13． From 1972 to 1979,the key problem that affected the progress in U.S.-China relations remained the Taiwan problem.1972-1979年，影响中美关系的主要问题还是台湾问题。
14． Kennedy initiated the program called the New Frontier. Johnson also started a War on Poverty.肯尼迪执政时启动了“新边疆号召”，约翰逊做总统时发动了反贫困大战。
15． The two famous leaders of black movements in the the 60s were Martin Luther King,who advocated non-violent Civil Rights movement,and Malcolm X,who advocated violence in self defense,and attempted to separate themselves from whith society.60年代美国有名的黑人运动领袖为马丁。路德。金和迈克姆。X。
16． Nixon resigned because of Watergate Scandal ,the first president to do so in American history.水门事件使尼克松成为美国历史上第一位辞职的总统。
17． From the mid-seventies onwards ,the U.S suffered from”stagflation”,that is ,the occurrence of stagnation and inflation at the same time.从70年代中期开始，美国开始遭受“经济滞胀”即经济停滞与通货膨胀的同时出现。
有几个名词解释我就不一一列出了，只把题目列出，你们翻到书本记忆吧。
1． The Truman Doctrime 杜鲁门主义
2． The Marshal Plan(马歇尔计划)
3． McCarthyism（麦卡锡主义）
4． Montgomery bus boycott（蒙哥马利抵制公共汽车公司运动）
5． The New Frontier（新边疆号召）
6． The Counterculture （反文化运动）
7． Watergate Scandal（水门事件）2001年全国统考第52题已考8． The little Rock Incident（小石城事件）
英语国家概况精讲：第十八章 美国经济
英
语国家概况美国部分精讲
Chapter 18 the Economy 美国经济

1． The U.S is by far the biggest industrial country in the is first in such advanced field as computers, space, nuclear energy and electronics.到止前为止，美国是世界上最大的工业国，在计算机，宇航，核能和电子等先进领域居世界首位。
2． Now American has more than half of the European market in transistors, oil refining,farm products,telecommunications,and computers.现在美国的晶体管，炼油，农产品，通讯和计算机占欧洲市场分额的一半多。
3． The U.S has less than 6% of the world’s it products about 25% of the total world output.美国拥有不到6%世界人口，却生产出占世界总产量的25%的产品。(2001,23题已考）
4． The U.S has a free-marked economy with a dominant private privately owned and operated businesses, including farms,produce about 85% of the total output of goods and services. Of course,the government has always been an important element American economy.美国经济是以私营为主的自由市场经济。(2002,44)
5． In the postwar years government involvement was again emphasized when the U.S adopted the Keynesian theory in running the economy. But the American economy was still plagued by stagflation. In the early 1980s,under the Reagan Administration, the traditional Keynesian theory was replaced by new monetarist policies.二战后美国采纳了凯恩斯理论来管理国这经济，再次强调政府于预。但美国经济还是出现连年的经济滞胀，于是，在80年代初期，在里根政府的领导下，传统的凯恩斯理论被新的货币主义政策所代替。
6． The cultivated land in the U.S makes up 21% of the total land, and people who are engaged in farming make up only 2.7% of the total population. Yet the U.S grows nearly one fourth of the world’s grain and supplies a half of all the exports of grain in the world. It is the world’s leading exporter of agricultural products.在美国，耕地占国土总面积的21%，而从事农业生产的人口只占总人口的2。7%。然而，美国还生产出占全世界近1/4的粮食。美国是世界上最大的农产口出口国。
7． The U.S ranks first in the production and export of corn. It produces nearly 50% of the corn in the Corn Belt is in the Midwest. Iowa is the leading corn-producing state. The Midwest is the most important agricultural region of the U.S.美国的玉米产量几乎占到世界总产量的50%，是世界最大的玉米生产和出口国，玉米带主要位于中西藏部地区，衣阿华是主要的玉米生产洲，中西部是美国最重要的农业区。
8． Wheat is American’s most important food crop. It is second only to corn in production every year. The Wheat Belt is located near the Corn Belt in the Midwest.小麦是美国最重要的食用作物，小麦带也位于中西部地区。

9． The U.S ranks second in the export of rice in the world after Thailand.美国的大米出口量仅次于泰国，居世界第二位。
10． The Midwest is the nation’ leading center of heavy industry. Texas is the country’s leading state in oil and natural gas deposits。中西部是美国最重要的重工业中心，得克萨斯是美国石油和天然气储量最大的州。
11． Huston is now the greatest commercial center of the Southwest and the chemical capital of the world. It is a center of petrochemical and synthetic rubber production . It is also the home of the space center.休斯敦被称作世界化工之都，是美国西南部地区最大的商业中心，也是石油化工和合成橡胶中心，还是宇航中心所在地。
12． The state of California now has passed New York as the most populous state. It is now first in manufacturing ,especially the manufacture of aircraft parts and missiles ,and in shipbuilding ,as well as in food production.加利福尼亚为美国人口最大的州，其飞机和导弹加工业，造船业和食口加工业居世界首位。
tly U.S. exports are about 15% of the world’s total. The U.S imports bout 13% of all world imports,Canada is the largest single source of goods imports by the U.S., outside of North American, Europe is the largest source of imports.当前美国的出口额占世界总出口额的确良15%，进口额占到期13%，加拿大是美国进口产品的最大来源地，在北美以外，欧洲则是最大的进口来源。
e soil, forests, water, and minerals are the major natural resources in the U.S.肥沃的壤，广袤的森林，充足的水源和丰富的矿藏是美国的主要自然资源。
oument, inflation ,financial deficit, and trade deficit are the trouble that always face the U.S.失业，通货膨胀，财政赤字和贸易赤字是美国一直面临的问题。
16．The estimated number of people living under the poverty line in 1995 was 35.7 million which made up about 14% of the total population.据估计，1995美国生活在贫困线以下的人口达3570万人，占总人口的14%。
17，The leading farm products in the U.S are corn ,wheat ,rice ,soybeans, oranges, meat, milk, apple, oats, cotton, tobacco, etc.美国的主要农作物有玉米，小麦，大米，大豆，桔子，肉类，牛奶，苹果，燕麦和烟草等。
18．The Midwest round the Great Lakes, the Middle Atlantic state, the south, and the Pacific Coast are the major industrial regions of the U.S.五大湖区周围的中西部，大西洋中部各州，南部和太平洋沿岸为美国主要的工业区。
必背解释：
Monetarist policies(货币主义政策)
Since the American economy was plagued by stagflation, in the early 1980s, the traditional Keynesian theory (传统的凯恩斯理论)was replaced by new monetarist, which sought to fight inflation by increasing supply and reducing demand, On one hand ,taxes were cut t
o increase economic dynamism. On the other hand, interest rates were raised to reduce the supply of money.
Briefly discuss the factors that contributed to the fast growth of the American economy.
简要论述美国经济迅速增长的几个因数：
The fast growth of the American economy has been contributable to many factors:
1> The geographical location of the U.S. provides very good conditions for the country to grow and become strong.2>the U.S has been by being a land rich in mineral resources and fertile farm soil, together with a moderate climate.3>American has been fortunate in having enough people to provide the labor necessary for a constantly expanding economy.4>The U.S has a skillful and willing labor force. The American labor force is not only hard-working ,but also willing to experiment, to change and to learn new technology.
英语国家概况精讲：第十九章 政治制度
英语国家概况美国部分精讲
Chapter 19 Political institution（政治制度）

1．The American Constitution is the oldest written constitution in the world. It was draw up in 1787 and went into effect in 1789.美国宪法是世界上最早的成文宪法，它起草于1787年，生效于1789年。
2．In 1787,Congress called for a meeting of delegate from all the states to revise the Articles of Confederation.1787年，国会召开各州代表参加的大会，主要目的是修改有明显缺点的《联邦条款》。
3．The government is divided into three branched: the legislative ,the executive ,and the judicial. Each branch has part of the powers but not all the power.美国政府被分为3部分：立法机构，行政机构和司法机构。
4．In either case, amendments must have the approval of three-fourths of the states before they enter into force.有两种情可以提出修改宪法条款，但不管是哪种，修正案必须经过3/4的批准才能生效。
5．The President of the U.S is the head of the executive branch and the head of the state elected by the whole nation. The Constitution requires the President to be a natural-born American citizen at least 35 years of age. The president election was held every 4 years .宪法规定总统必须是美国本土出生的美国公民，至少年满35岁，总统选举每四年举行一次。
6． In American ,the “winner-take-all” system applies in all states expect Maine.在美国，嬴者全赢的制度适用于除缅因州外的各州。
7．The electors of all fifty states and the District of Columbia-a total of 538 persons-comprise what is known as the Electoral College. To be successful, a candidate for the Presidency must receive 270 votes.50个州加上哥伦比亚特区共有538位总统候选人，他们组成选举团，要成为美国总统，候选人则要获得270票。
8．The presidential term of 4 years begin on Jan 20 following the November election, The president publicly takes an oath of office, which is administered by the Chief Justice of
the U.S. A president can be elected to office only twice.美国总统任期为4年，每位总统任期最多只能两届，总统宣誓就职仪式是由美国首席娃哈哈官主持的。
9． Article I of the Constitution grants all legislative power of the federal government to a Congress composed of two chambers, a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of 2 members from each state, Membership in the House is based on population and its size is therefore not specified in the Constitution.国会由参议院和众议院组成，参议院由各州派出两名议员共同组成，众议院成员数则按各州人口及大小而定，因此众义员数宪法没有具体规定。
10． The Constitution requires that U.S. Senators must be at least 30 years of age, citizens of the U.S for at least 9 years, and residents of the states from which they are elected. The senatorial term is 6 years, and every 2 years one-third of the Senate stands for re-election.宪法规定美国参议员必须是年满30岁有美国公民资格9年以上的公民，并且是选其为议员的州的居民，参议员任期为6年，且每月年改选1/3的议员。
11． Menber of the House of Representative must be at least 25, citizens for 7 years, and residents of the states which send them to Congress. Today, the House is composed of 435 members. Since members of the House serve two-year terms, the life of a Congress is considered to be 2 years.宪法规定美国众议员必须是年满25岁有美国公民资格7年以上的公民，并且是选其为议员的州的居民，现在，众议院由来35名议员组成，由于众议员任期为2年，所以国会任期往往被认为是2年。
12． Each hours of the Congress has the power to introduce legislation on any subject, except revenue bills which must first come from the House of Representatives.除了税收法案必须首先由众议院提出，国会的两院各自有权就任何提议立法。
13． The Constitution provides that the Vice president shall be president of the Senate. He has no vote, except in a case of a tie. The House of Representatives choose its own presiding officer-the Speaker of the House.宪法规定由美国副总统担任参议院议长，议长不参加投票，除非出现两派票数相等的情况，众议院则选出他自己的主持官员，-众议院议长。
14． According to the Constitution, the judicial power of the U.S shall be vested in one Supreme Court. The judicial system has evolved into the present structure: the Supreme Court, 11 court of appeals, 91 district courts, and 3 courts of special jurisdiction. are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.根据宪法规定，美国的司法权属于最高法院，司法体系结构为：最高法院，11个上诉法院，91个地方法院，3个有特殊司法权的法院，美国的法官是由总统任命并由参议院批准的。
15． The Supreme Court is t
he highest court of the U.S and is the only organ which has the power to interpret the Constitution The Supreme Court at present consists of a Chief Justice and 8 Associate Justices.最高法院是美国最高等的法院，也是惟一有权解释的机构，目前法院由一名首席娃哈哈官和颜悦色名助理法官组成。
16． The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in only two kinds of cases: those involving foreign dignitaries, and those to which a state in a party.高等法院最初只对两种案件拥有司法权：涉及国外达官贵人，一个州为一方当事人。
17． In general, American has a two-party system. There are two major political parties in America: the Democrats and the Republicans. There have been four periods in the history of political parties in American.一般说来，美国实行的是两党制，两大主要政党为：民主党和共和党，美国政党的历史可分为四个时期。
18． The first period of the party system in American refer to the appearance of the Federalists and the Anti-federalists. The third phase of the two-party system ran from the 1860s to the 1920s with the Republican Party dominating the political scene for most of the time.美国政党制的第一阶段出现了两个主要党派，联邦派各反联邦派，第三阶段从容不迫9世纪60年代到达9世纪20年代，绝大部分时间是共和党执政。（2002，21题）
19． In the 28 terms of the House of Representatives from 1933 to 1989,the Democrats enjoyed a majority of 26 terms, in the Senate, the Democrats had a majority for 23 terms.从1933年到1989年的确届众议院中，民主党在于6届中拥有多数席位，在参议院中民主党在于23届中拥有多数席位。
20． After the 1828 election of Andrew Jackson, the Democratic-Republican party split. The main faction, led by Andrew Jackson, called themselves the Democratic Party, while the faction opposed to Jackson formed the Whig party in 1834.1828年安德鲁。杰克逊当选总统后，民主共和党分裂，由安德鲁。杰克逊领导的主派自称为民主党，反对杰克逊的一派于1834年另立辉格党
必背解释：
1. 联邦制：the Federal system
2. the Bill of Right <权利法案》
3. “winner-talk-al “system(羸者全羸)
必背问答：
1． What mechanism did the writers of the American Constitution introduce to provide safeguards?
They introduced the mechanism of separation of powers and checks and balances.
ing to the Constitution, what judicial power does the President have?
The president has the power to give reprieves(缓刑)and pardons(赦免)in dederal criminal cases.
3。 What are the two special powers of the Senate?
There are two special powers: one is to confirm presidential appointments of high officials of the federal government; the other is to ratify all treaties by a two-thirds vote.
4. What is the cause for the decline of the influence of political parties?

There are two major factors:1>the decline of patronage using the Party’s influence to bring material benefits to its followers;2>the wide use of direct primarsies in nominating candidates for public office.（1。利用党的影响给其追随者利益的特权减小了，2，广泛采用直接初选提名公职候选人）
英语国家概况精讲：第二十章 美国教育
英语国家概况美国部分精讲
Chapter 20 Education 教育

1． It is a general view that every American has the right and obligation to become educated. American believe that ,through education, an individual acquires the knowledge, skill ,attitudes and abilities which will enable him to fit into society and improve his social status. Education helps to shape the society and develop the national strength。在美国，人们普遍认识是，每一个人都有受教育的权利和义务，通过受教育，人们可以更好的适应社会，提高自身的社会地位，教育有助于塑造社会，增强国家实力。（2000，46题，一句话回答）
2． Formal education in the U.S consists of elementary ,secondary and higher education, Elementary and secondary education,which forms public education, is free and compulsory.美国正规的教育由初等，中等和高等教育组成，初等，中等教育属公立教育，是免费和义务的。
3． In American ,there are more public elementary and secondary schools that private ones, while private colleges and universities outnumber public ones.在美国，公立中小学比私立多，而私立大学比公立大学多。
4． Under the Tenth Amendment to the U.S Constitution, education was included among the responsibilities which were “reserved to the states or the people:.根据美国宪法第十修正案，教育是：保留给各州或人民：的责任之一。
5． There is not a national system of education in the United States, It is the state that establishes policies for the education within its boundary, so many variations can be found in the education system of the 50 states.美国没有全国统一的教育体制，而是由各州为自己辖区内的学校制订政策，所以50个州的教育体制相差很大。
6． Elementary and secondary education in the U.S covers 12 years for ages 6 through 18, All the states have laws that require children to go to school, generally until the age of 16, unless they are severely handicapped.美国初等和中等教育共12年，从6岁到期8岁，所有州要求孩子们上学上到期16岁，除非他们严重残疾。
7． In American, the total support for public schools is about 186 billion a year, about 7% of the gross national product(GNP)在美国，给公立学校的财政资助一年约1850亿美元，约占国民生产总值的7%。
8． Each local school district of American has a governing board whose major responsibilities are 1>the hiring of professional and support staff, 2>determining the most suitable local curricul
um, 3>and developing and approving a budget to carry out educational programs. Usually the board of education employs a superintendent of school, who is the chief executive officer at the local level.每个地方学区都有一个由选民选举产生的管理委员会，它主要有三个职责，1。聘用教师和学校员工，2。决定适合当地的课程，3。制定和批准执行教育计划的预算，通常，教育委员会要选一位督学，作为地方一级的重要教育行政官员。
9． The typical organizational pattern for elementary and secondary schools is that of graded schools. Usually, the elementary school covers grades 1-8 and the high school 9-12.美国中小学典型的组织模式是年级制，通常，小学包括1到8年级，中学包括9到12年级。
10． There is a certain degree of similarity in the American elementary school curriculum. It mainly consists of mastery of the “basics” such as reading, writing, and arithmetic of mathematics.美国各小学的课程有某种程度的相似之处， 要是对“基础课的掌握，这些基础包括阅读，写作，和算术或数学等。
11． Higher education of the U.S began with the founding of Harvard College in 1636.美国的高等教育始于1636年哈佛学院的建立。（2001，22选择）
12． The system of higher education in the U.S has three principal functions: teaching, research and public service.美国高等教育有三大职能：教学，研究，和公众服务。
13． In American, there are the best research universities such as Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia and MIT in the east, as well as Stanford and Berkeley on the west coast.美国最好的科研型大学有位于东部的哈佛，耶鲁，普林斯顿，哥伦比亚，和麻省理工大学，位于西海岸的斯坦福大学和伯克利大学。
14． The administration of most colleges and universities is quite separate from that of the school. But there are three State board that set policy for education at all levels in respective state, They are the State Boards of New York, Rhode Island ,and Michigan.大多数学院和大学的行政管理是与中小学分开的，但有3个州例外，它们是纽约，罗得岛，和密歇根州。
15． Except for some college sponsored by the Catholic Church, all college and universities in the U.S ,public or private, are governed by a board of trustees composed primarily of laymen.除了一些由天主教会赞助的大学外，美国所有的大学都是由一个主要的由外行人员组成的托管委员会管理。
16． The community college calls for education to serve the good of both the individual and society. It embodies Thomas Jefferson’s belief that an education should be practical as well as liberal.社区学院奉行教育既为个人又为社会服务的宗旨，它包含了托马斯。杰斐逊教育既是实用的又是自由这一信仰。
17． By the mid-1980s, a wave of education reform swe
pt the country. These reform had two focuses:1>the raising of the standards of teaching and learning;2>the restructuring of the schools.到80年代中期席卷全国的教育改革的浪潮有两个重点1》提高教学标准2》学校的结构改革。
18． In 1983, a report entitled “A Nation At Risk” was issued which cited high rates of adult illiteracy, declining SAT scores, the decline of educational standards. The report put forward five proposals.1983《危险中的国家》发表，引用了成人文盲比例高，学生技能下降，教育水准下降等例子，该报告提出了五点建议。
19． On April 18,1991, President Bush issued his plan” American 2000:An Education strategy” which set six goals.
必背简答：
1． What are the three principle functions of the system of higher education in the U.S?
答案在上述12点
2. what is the guiding principle of community college?
It is higher education for everyone and the philosophy that equality must equal opportunity for self-realization and for the recognition of individual differences.
is the difference between an academic high school and a technical high school?(2002,46已考)
is the chief executive officer under the local board of education in America?
The superintendent of schools is the chief executive officer at the local level.
are the three type of American high schools?
They are comprehensive , academic, vocational , and technical schools.
are two focuses of the reforms in the 1980s when a wave of education reform swept the country?(the answer is 17—答案是上述第17条)
7．Why does the number of graduate school enrollment in American keep climbing?
Because an advanced degree is viewed as a key way to move ahead people’s careers.
ing to the report entitled :A Nation At Risk” issued in 1983, what are the :new basics” for all students graduating from high school?
The “new basics” are four years of English , three year of mathematics, three years of science , three years of social studies, and a half-year of computer science.
英语国家概况精讲：第21章 文化 建筑和音乐
英语国家概况美国部分精讲
Chapter 21 Literature, Architecture and Music 文化，建筑和音乐

1．Benjamin Franklin was the only writer in the colonial period whose works are read today “Lost time is never found again”, “God helps those who help themselves “are very famous saying in his Poor Richard’s Almanac.本杰明。富兰克大是殖民地时期唯一一位作品至今仍广为传诵的作家“光阴一去不复回”“自助者，天助之，都是他《穷理查的年鉴》中的名言。
2．Benjamin Franklin’s uncompleted Autobiography is perhaps the first real American writing as well as the first real autobiography in English.本杰明。富兰克林没完成的自传可能是第一本真正的美国作品，也是第一本用英语写的自传.
3．Washington Irving
was the first American writer who gained international fame. His most famous book The Sketch Book contains two of the best-love stories from American literature: and .华盛顿.欧文是第一个获得国际知名度的美国作家，他最著名的一本书《见闻札记》，它包括了美国文学两个最受欢迎的故事《瑞普。凡。温克尔》和《睡谷的传奇》
4．In the early part of the 19th century, New York City was the center of American writing .Its writers were called :Knickerbockers” and the period from 1810 to 1840 is called the “Knickerbockers Era” of the American literature. 19世纪早期，纽约城是美国的写作中心，这里的作家被称为纽约市人，从1810-1840年的三十年被称为美国文学的“纽约市人时期。
5．In 1936, Emerson published his famous book Nature, which is the clearest statement of Transcendentalist ideas. In 1837, Emerson gave a speech at Harvard University: “The American Scholar”, which was considered the intellectual Declaration of independence.1836年，爱默生出版了其著作《自然》该书对先验主义作了最清楚的阐述，1837年，爱默生在哈佛大学发表了题为《美国的学者》的演讲，该演讲被认为是知识分子的独立宣言。
6．In The Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne consider the effect on an individual’s character of guilty conscience, of hypocrisy, and of hatred.霍桑在代表作《红字》中对人物性格的内疚，虚伪和憎恨的外部影响提出了自己的看法。
7．Mark Twain’s famous works are:1> The Adventure of Tom Sawyer.汤姆。索亚历险记
2> the Adventures of huckleberry Finn( his masterwork)哈克贝利。费恩历险记
3>A Tramp Abroad 浪迹天涯
4>Life on the Mississippi 密西西比河上的生活
5>The Gilded Age 镀金时代6>Innocents Abroad 无知者的国外游 （一句话简答的可能）
8．In Walt Whitman’s masterpiece Leaves of Grass, he praised the ideas of equality and democracy and celebrated the dignity, the self-reliant spirit and the joy of the common man. “Song of Myself” is Whitman’s very famous works. Whitman was the first to explore fully the possibilities of free verse.惠特曼是探索自由诗体可能性的第一个，他在他的代表作《草中集》中歌颂了平等，民主的思想，赞美了尊严，自立精神和普通百姓的快乐，《自我之歌》是惠特曼又一名作。
9．Emily Dickson wrote nearly 1800 poems and only seven of them were published during her lifetime. Death was one of the great themes of her work and she seldom lost sight of the grave.死亡是迪金森作品的一大主题。
10．Sister Carrie is Theodore Dreiser’s first novel. Dreiser is also famous for his Trilogy of Desire(The Financier, The Titan, and The Stoic), and An American Tragedy, which is considered to be his best.《嘉丽妹妹》是德莱塞的第一部小说，德莱塞还因其〈欲望三部曲〉“金融家”“
巨人”“斯多葛”以及〈美国国悲剧〉而闻名于世，它也被认为是他最好的一部作品。（2001。46问答）
12．Thomas Sterns Eliot won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1946. His masterpiece, “The Waste Land” reveals the spiritual crisis of Post War Europe, and is considered the manifesto of the “Lost Generation”.托马斯。艾略特于1946年获得诺贝尔文学奖，《荒原》是其代表用，展现了战后欧洲的精神危机，被认为是“迷惘的一代的宣言书。
13．Ernest Hemingway won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954, The sun Also Rises is his important novel. His other important works include Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls, Old Man and the Sea.海明威1954年获得诺贝尔文学奖，《太阳照样升起》是他的第一部重要作品，他的其他著名作品还有《永别了，武器》，《丧钟为谁而鸣》《老人与海》（一句话简答的可能）（2001。24选择）
14．Hughes and Wright were the major figures of Black writers. Hughes was regarded as Black American’s poet laureate. In his masterpiece “The Weary Blues”, he explains the everyday life in Harlem. Native Son is Wright’s masterpiece. It is the first book by a Black author about the Black life. Black Boy was an autobiography relating the bitter experience of Wright’s youth.休斯和赖特是美国黑人作家的代表人物，休斯被认为是美国黑人“桂冠诗人”，其代表作为《疲惫的黑人伤感歌》〈土生子〉是赖特的代表作，它是第一部关于赖特青年时期苦难经历的自传。
15．In the 1920s,Black Literature developed into an upsurge which has come to be known as the Harlem Renaissance.美国文学的：哈莱姆复兴“发生在20世纪20年代。
16．The first uniquely American contribution to architecture was the Skyscraper, which was perfected in the late 19th century by the Chicago architect, Louis Sullivan. Sears Tower is the tallest building in the world, which was completed in 1974 in Chicago.摩天大楼是美国人对建筑的第一个贡献，它是由芝加哥建筑师路易斯。沙利文完成的，西尔斯大厦是世界是最高的建筑物。
17．In American, Jazz, Rock and Role, Western and country music are the main type of popular music. Jazz is considered the U.S’ s unique contribution to music.爵士乐，摇滚乐和西部乡村音乐是美国流行音乐的几种形式，爵士乐被认为是美国人对音乐的特别贡献。
英语国家概况精讲：第22章 节日和假期
英语国家概况美国部分精讲
第二十二章节：Holidays and Festivals 节日和假期

1． By long custom, American nationally observed holidays include Christmas, Thanksgiving Day, Labor Day, Independence Day, New Year’s Day, Columbus Day, Washington’s birthday, Memorial Day and Veterans’ Day.在美国有以下节日是全国同庆的节日：圣诞节，感恩节，劳动节，独立纪念日
饼，越橘酱和南瓜是感恩节的传统食品。
8。Christmas Day, which celebrated the birth of Jesus Christ, is the biggest and the best-loved holiday in the United states, in many areas,, after the Thanksgiving Day is the biggest shopping day of the year-the first day of Christmas gift shopping.圣诞节是美国最大的，最受美国人喜欢的节日，在许多地区，感恩节后的第一个星期五是一年中最在的购物日---是购买圣诞节礼物的第一天。

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